Abstract:

The primary building block of the Standard Model is an elementary particle. The Standard Model has a list of all existing and, therefore, possible particles in our Universe. The elementary particles can convert into each other. The elementary particles and the interaction between the elementary particles strictly obey to all symmetries of our Universe and, therefore, obey to all conservations laws of our Universe.

The primary building block of the Post-Standard Model is different symmetries of the Universe. The symmetry can be broken. An elementary particle is a stable combination of several broken symmetries. Each symmetry (or the broken symmetry to be exact) corresponds to some conserved property of the elementary particle. For example,the energy (a conserved parameter) corresponds to the continuity of time (one symmetry of the Universe). The spin (a conserved parameter) corresponds to the time- inverse symmetry and so on.

 

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Content

click on the chapter for the shortcut

() Importance of Primary Building Block of the Universe

() Standard model and "post- Standard model"

() Symmetry & Conservation Laws

() Key rule of the post- Standard model

() What is a vacuum state? What is nothing?

() Energy and momentum. The symmetries broken for any subject in the Universe.

() Particle mass: a feature of any object of the Universe.

() Can the mass be negative?

() Gravitational and inertial mass

() Mass and Gravitational Field: unavoidable attributes of any object in the Universe

() What is "the object" and what is "the nothing" in our Universe?

() Endless quest for the Theory of Everything

() Gravitational field: a feature of any object of the Universe.

() Polarity of the gravitational field

() Elementary particles

() Interaction between elementary particles, between different broken symmetry and within the same broken symmetry

() Dark matter. All remaining objects in the Universe, which we cannot see.

() Dark energy. The energy of the vacuum.

 

Inflation, breaking symmetry, origin of an elementary particle & Spin

() Why is understanding of the Inflation important for understanding of the spin?

() A few facts about the Inflation

() How to create a particle from the vacuum

() Size of an elementary particle

 

() Transformation of two elementary particles into one particle.

() Exchange interaction. Spin-inactive electrons

 

() Can humans destroy the Earth, the Milky Way Galaxy, our Universe and any possible Alien Civilization living there?

 

Video

(video 1). Inflation: The Creation Story of all Matter in the Universe.

(). Questions & Answers

 

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Importance of Primary Building Block of the Universe

Both the Post- Standard Model and the Standard Model respect all conservation Laws, all symmetries of the Universe and the existence of all elementary particles. Why does it matter what the primary building block of the Universe is? Does it make any difference whether it is an elementary particle or a symmetry?

Yes, it is important because the primary building block is the basis, which cannot be broken, compromised or modified at any possible conditions and situations. The symmetries of our Universe are truly unbreakable, uncompromising and unmodified. The elementary particle can be slightly modified.

(Example 1) A neutron in free space and inside a nucleus. Is it the same particle?

In free space, the neutron is unstable and breaks into a proton, an electron and a neutrino. The half-life time is 10.3 minutes. In contrast, inside most of the nucleus, the neutron is stable with nearly infinite life time. In both cases, the neutron consists of the same 3 quarks.

(Example 2) An electron at a high energy level with the spin and a spin-inactive electron at a deep energy level. Is it the same particle?

For a quantum state, which is occupied by two electrons of opposite spins, the time- inverse symmetry is not broken and ,therefore, the two electrons are not distinguished by any means. The Standard Model treats these two electrons as two elementary particles without any reason or justification. In contrast, the Post- Standard Model treats this quantum state as one stable state, for which some symmetries are broken (e.g. the energy, the electrical charge, etc.). The particle number does not matter for this model.

 

 

 

 

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Standard model and "post- Standard model"

The Standard Model of particle physics

The Standard Model assumes that our Universe consists of a finite set of a particles. All possible processes and events in our Universe are only interactions between those particles. Each particle has very fixed number of properties like the energy, spin, charge, rest mass, color charge etc.. These properties of an elementary particle are firmly fixed and are the internal features of each particle. The interactions between these particles describes all processes in our Universe.

The elementary particle may be transformed between each other when they crash into each other at a high energy. In this case one elementary particle disappears into nowhere and another particle appears from nowhere. There is only one limitation for this process: The Conservation Laws. As soon as all required conservation Laws are hold, the transformation between elementary particles occurs.

 

The "post- Standard" Model 

The "post-Standard" Model assumes that our University has a set of different symmetries. One of symmetries or several symmetries can broken locally. The breaking of symmetry is hard and the symmetry is trying to return to its unbroken state. However, some rare cases exists when several symmetries can be broken simultaneously and this set of the broken symmetries is locally stable. This stand-alone set of broken symmetries is called an elementary particle. The conditions, at which a set of broken symmetries are locally stable, is subtle and can be possible at very specific parameters or at very specific degree (amount) of breaking of a specific symmetry. This is why each elementary particle has specific parameter (rest mass, spin etc.)

 

 

 

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Symmetry & Conservation Laws

Each Conservation Law of Physics always corresponds to one of the continues symmetry of our Universe

This rule was discovered by Emma Noether. This discovery is one of greatest discoveries in Physics. Along the Quantum Mechanics and the Theory of relativity, it made a largest impact on our modern understanding of our Universe.

See Noether's Theorem here

Examples:

The time transfer symmetry The energy conservation law

The spacial- position- transfer symmetry The momentum conservation law

The time-inverse symmetry The spin conservation law

The phase symmetry of electron wavefunction (gauge symmetry)The electrical-charge conservation law

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Key rule of the post- Standard model

(key rule):

Any symmetry in the fabric of space-time, which can be broken in some finite number of parts of the broken symmetry, can be unbroken. This entails that the sum of all the broken fragments should converge to the vacuum state, where the symmetry is unbroken.

(forbidden states) :Quantum states that cannot be combined to form the vacuum state or the state of unbroken symmetry are prohibited from existing.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(prove for the key rule of post-standard model):

It has been well-established (as evidenced below) that the total energy of the Universe, which comprises the positive energies of particles (mass and kinetic energy (movement) ) as well as the negative energies of gravitational, electromagnetic, and other interactions, sums up to zero. This implies that all objects in the Universe were created during the Cosmic Inflation, when fully-symmetrical states broke into states of broken symmetries. As the initial quantum state was symmetrical, the reverse process of assembling the broken fragments should lead to the initial fully-symmetrical vacuum state.

 

(example 1): electrical charge

When a state of broken symmetry, characterized by a negative electrical charge, combines with a state of broken symmetry that represents a positive electrical charge, it leads to a quantum state of unbroken symmetry that has no electrical charge.

(example 2): spin +

When a state of broken time-inverse symmetry, characterized by a spin directed up, combines with a state of broken time-inverse symmetry that represents a spin directed down, it leads to a quantum state of unbroken time-inverse symmetry or a spin- inactive state that has no spin.

(example 3): orbital moment

Combining a state of broken rotational p-symmetry, with an orbital moment l=-1, with two other states of broken rotational p-symmetry, characterized by orbital moments l=0 and l=+1, results in a quantum state of unbroken rotational symmetry. This state is typical for the deep-energy states of an atom.

 

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What is a vacuum state? What is nothing?

 

The vacuum state or nothing means that no single symmetry of the space-time matrix is broken.

Essentially, "nothing" refers to a state that is indistinguishable or so perfectly symmetrical that it lacks any distinguishing features that could set it apart from anything else.

 

(note): During the Cosmic Inflation, the perfect symmetries of the vacuum states are broken into non-symmetrical parts. This led to the emergence of all matter and energy in the Universe. (see below)

 

 

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Energy and momentum. The symmetries broken for any object in the Universe.

What are the universal broken symmetries?

Every elementary particle comprises numerous broken symmetries, some of which are present in all particles and every conceivable object in the Universe. Those symmetries are called the universal broken symmetries

(universal broken symmetry 1 ) continuity of time-> corresponded conserve parameter: energy

The existence of any object in the Universe implies that there is some change associated with it over time. Such changes could be in the form of variations in the object's position, spin, quantum field, or any other related aspect.

The mere existence of an object in the Universe entails a breaking of the symmetry linked with the continuous flow of time, thus necessitating that any conceivable object in the Universe possess some amount of energy.

(universal broken symmetry 2 ) continuity of space-> corresponded conserve parameter: momentum

The existence of any object in the Universe implies that the subject has some specific location in space, indicating that the object exists in a particular place in the Universe but not in other places.

The mere existence of an object in the Universe entails a breaking of the symmetry linked with the continuous flow of space, thus necessitating that any conceivable object in the Universe possess some amount of momentum.

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Particle mass: a feature of any object of the Universe.

 

Any distinguished object in the Universe has a mass. The mass originated from the breaking of the time continuity. The fact of the existence of an object also implies the existence of its mass.

( Existence of an object in the Universe) The presence of an object in the Universe implies that it undergoes some form of temporal evolution, resulting in a discernible difference in its properties between two moments in time. Even in cases where the object remains unchanged, it is still distinguishable that there are no changes for the object in time. For a vacuum state or "nothing", it is impossible to distinguish whether there is any difference or there is no difference for the state in time.

 

(fact)

Any object in the Universe has a mass. Everything imaginable or unimaginable, like a hole to multiverse or a 100- dimensional string or a virtual object or particle, have a non-zero mass.

Anything, which can be distinguished, and which is different from the nothing, has a mass.

Can the mass be negative?

No. The mass of an object is linked to the continuity of time and originates from the breaking of the time continuity. Since time can flow only in one direction from the past to the future, the mass can be only positive. An assumption for the existence of a negative mass is equivalent to the incorrect assumption that the flow direction of time can be reversed.

 

 

 

 

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Gravitational field: a feature of any object of the Universe.

 

(gravitational field & the mass: two side of the same broken symmetry)

Any feature of an object corresponds to some broken symmetry. The vacuum state can be broken on two or more parts of the broken symmetries. Combining these broken parts restores the vacuum state.

The symmetry of continuity of time is broken into the two parts: The 1st part is the object mass. The 2nd part is the object gravitational field.

The mass corresponds to a positive energy. The gravitational field corresponds to a negative energy.

When a vacuum state is broken, the positive energy of the mass is exactly equal to the negative energy of the gravitational field.

When a vacuum state is broken due to interaction of other objects (e.g. a collision of other particles), an additional energy can be either supplied or absorbed. In this case, the positive energy of the mass does not equal the negative energy of the gravitational field.

 

Polarity of the gravitational field:

Why is the polarity of the gravitational field always the same? Why does the gravitational field only attract particles, but never repulses them?

No. The gravitational field is linked to the object mass. The object mass is linked to the breaking of the time continuity for the object. Since time can flow only in one direction, the mass can be only positive and the gravitation field can be only negative.

 

Balance of energy of mass and energy of gravitational field: well-verified experimental fact

Experimental fact confirming that total energy of all object of our Universe (energy of all mass + energy of all fields) equals to zero:

(experimental fact 1) The large-distance curvature is zero

 

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Gravitational and inertial mass

(gravitational mass) Gravitational mass describes the strength of the gravitational field, which the object is generating.

As the existence of a gravitational field arises from the breaking of time-continuity symmetry, the gravitational mass measures the degree of such a symmetry breaking.

(inertial mass) Inertial mass describes how fast the momentum of an object changes under an applied force.

As the existence of a momentum arises from the breaking of space -continuity symmetry,the inertial mass measures the degree of such a symmetry breaking.

(fact) An object's gravitational and inertial masses are equivalent and represent a single property of the object, which is the degree of breaking the symmetry of space-time.

Einstein's theory of general relativity was built based on this fact.

Space and time are just components of the 4d space- time continuum, in which our Universe exists.

 

 

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Mass and Gravitational Field: unavoidable attributes of any object in the Universe

(fact): Everything in our Universe, which is different from "the nothing" and can be distinguished by some means, does have a mass and induces a gravitational field.

It is because the existence itself of such an object breaks the time continuity and, as a consequence, the object has a mass and a gravitational field associated with such a break.

What is "the object" and what is "the nothing" in our Universe?

Everything, which can be distinguished in time, is "the object". The object can undergo some change in time meaning that at one one moment of time there is some difference in the object in comparison to the previous moment of the time. Even when the object does not change in time, but we can distinguish that, it is enough for an object to be "the object" of our Universe and, consequently, to have a mass and gravitational field.

(fact): Everything, which may exist in our Universe like a hole to another Universe, a quantum string, a black hole etc. and, therefore, which can be distinguished from "the nothing", is "the object" and, consequently, has a mass and induces a gravitational field.

 

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Endless quest for the Theory of Everything

(standard model) The standard model attributes all interactions to field-carrier particles, such as photons. The standard model describes any features of an object based on particles. The standard model relies on particles for all aspects.

The standard model encounters a problem with the description of the gravitational field since it is elegantly explained by Einstein's theory of general relativity that is built upon the symmetry of space-time rather than particles.

Although Einstein's theory of general relativity has been extensively verified and does not contradict any experimental observations, it is constantly being challenged by the standard model. Instead of describing the gravitational field as the symmetry of space-time, the standard model attempted to introduce field-carrier particles, such as the graviton, in a pursuit to create a theory of everything.

The failure of numerous attempts to introduce field-carrier particles like gravitons within the framework of the standard model serves to validate the accuracy of Einstein's theory of general relativity.

(post- standard model) The post- standard describes all interactions based on the interaction between symmetries or within a symmetry. The interaction due to the broken continuity of space-time is described by Einstein's theory of general relativity. As a result, Einstein's theory fits well into the post-standard model without requiring any alterations.

 

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Elementary particles

 

(as viewed from Standard model):

From the standpoint of the Standard Model, elementary particles are the fundamental constituents of all matter in the Universe. Therefore, any phenomena occurring in the Universe can be traced back to interactions between these particles.

(as viewed from post- Standard model):

From the standpoint of the post Standard Model, an elementary particle is a stable combination of several broken symmetries. The interactions among these various broken symmetries dictate all the processes occurring in the Universe.

 

(Historical influence on the standard model)

The standard model was inspired and basically originated from particle-scattering experiments, in which the result of scattering of some known particles is measured as an output of some different, but known particles. This is why a solitary elementary particle assumes such a crucial role in the standard model.

 

(Endless quest for new particles in the standard model)

Within the Standard Model, the discovery of a new elementary particle represents a solution to all outstanding problems and offers a comprehensive understanding of the Universe. Hence, the detection of the Higgs boson, dark matter particles, and supersymmetric particles are of critical significance for the model.

However, for the post-Standard Model, the identification of these particles serves only to elucidate the properties of the interactions among different or the same broken symmetries. The existence of stable combinations of various broken symmetries as separate elementary particles does not hold the same degree of importance within this model. The primary objective of the post-Standard Model is to elucidate the characteristics of the interactions between various broken symmetries or the interactions within the same broken symmetry.

 

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Interaction between elementary particles, between different broken symmetry and within the same broken symmetry

 

(standard model) In the standard model, all interactions are the interaction between particles

All interactions in the standard model are mediated by field- carrier particles, such as photons.. For example, an electron emits a photon, which is absorbed by the 2nd electron. Similarly, the 2nd electron emits a photon, which is absorbed by the 1st electron. It results in the electromagnetic interaction between two electrons.

 

(post standard model) In the post- standard model, all interactions are the interaction between different symmetries or within a single symmetry.

There are two types of possible interactions in the post-standard-model.

(interaction 1) interaction between different symmetries

In certain circumstances, a broken symmetry can have the ability to break or restore another symmetry. For instance, when an electron undergoes acceleration, it can break a gauge symmetry, leading to the emission of a photon. Another example is when an electron of atomic orbital absorbs a photon. Initially, the electron is in an s- state, where the spatial symmetry is unbroken. However, the interaction with the photon can break the spatial symmetry, resulting in the absorption of the photon and the excitation of the electron from the energy level of the s-orbital moment to the energy level of the p- orbital moment.

The condition, at which one broken symmetry can break another symmetry, is often tough and can occur only satisfying all conservation laws.

There are different possibilities on how one symmetry can break another symmetry. Symmetry- breaking interactions can have multiple paths, and the competition between these paths is described by probabilities. For example, in the case of a photon interacting with an electron in a metal, there are two possible paths: interaction with a conduction electron or interaction with a localized electron. The probability of interaction with the conduction electron is high, while the probability of interaction with the localized electron is low. It is because the size of the photon is similar to the size of the conduction electron, but is very different with the size of a localized electron.

(interaction 2) interaction within a single symmetries

 

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Breaking & Unbreaking Symmetries. Annihilation of particle and antiparticle.

 

 

 

Symmetry broken into two parts

It is the case when a vacuum symmtery is two parts

part 1 + part 2 =0= vacuum

 

(symmetry 1): gauge symmetry

Charge "+" & charge "-" =0=vacuum

 

(symmetry 2): time- inverse symmetry

Spin-up & spin-down

 

 

 

Symmetry broken into three or more parts or or

 

part 1 + part 2 + part 3=0= vacuum

part 1 + part 2 + part 3+ part 4 + part 5=0= vacuum

(symmetry 1): rotation symmetry

part 1 + part 2 + part 3=0= vacuum

 

Symmetry broken into a continuos state

(symmetry 1): continuity of space

part 1

 

(symmetry 2): continuity of time

part 1

 

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Dark matter. All remaining objects in the Universe, which we cannot see.

Dark matter is matter, which does not interact with the electromagnetic field, and, therefore, can be detected only by the effect of its gravitational field. There is about nine times more dark matter than visible matter in our Universe.

(What we know for sure): The visible Matter and the Dark matter include absolutely all existent objects in our Universe. There is nothing in our Universe, which is not included into either the Visible matter or the Dark Matter.

 

(fact): Everything in our Universe, which is different from "the nothing" and which can be distinguished by some means, does have a mass and induces a gravitational field. Therefore, any possible object in our Universe belongs either to the Visible matter or to the Dark Matter. There is no other choice. There is no other place for any possible object to exist in our Universe.

(fact): Every imaginable thing, which may exist in our Universe like a hole to another Universe, a quantum string, a black hole and any most weird object, belongs either to the Visible matter or to the Dark Matter (see above) .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(importance of the Dark matter): If there were no Dark Matter, the visible matter in the Universe would not stop expanding even locally and the complex objects like comets, planets, stars, Galaxies and Galaxies Clusters would not be formed. The Universe would consist only of atoms of hydrogen and helium.

 

How is Dark Matter detected?

The kinematic of the movement of stars in a Galaxy or Galaxies in a Galaxy Cluster is determined by the distribution of gravitational fields of all- existed objects inside the Galaxy or the Galaxy Cluster (the Newton dynamics). Measuring such a movement dynamics of stars and galaxies, the distribution of mass can be evaluated. Subtraction of mass of all visible objects (Stars, interstellar dust etc.) from the measured total mass gives the mass and the mass distribution of the Dark Matter.

 

 

 

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Dark energy. Gravitation and mass of vacuum.

Gravitathion and mass of nothing or emptiness

Absolute vacuum or absolute emptiness or nothingness possesses a non-zero mass known as Dark Energy. The physical explanation for the non-zero mass of emptiness lies in the existence of higher-energy levels where the vacuum can potentially break into a pair of particle and antiparticle (such as breaking into a pair of an electron and a positron). Such spontaneous breaking of the vacuum occurs randomly due to spontaneous symmetry breaking, in absence of any external force or interference. Shortly after their creation, these short-lived particles revert back to the vacuum through annihilation. These transient particles are entirely real and their gravitational influence contributes to the gravitational effects of emptiness, termed as Dark Energy.

Measurement of Dark Energy.

Experimentally observed acceleration of expansion of our Universe is a clear and undeniable proof for the existence of the Dark Energy and for the non- zero mass of vacuum

(fact) The observed acceleration of the Universe's expansion can only be explained by the existence of vacuum mass

When the Universe expands, it encompasses more vacuum within itself. As vacuum possesses mass, the total mass within the Universe increases, resulting in the acceleration of the Universe's expansion.

 

Non- existed negative mass and non- existed repulsive gravitation.

(fact) An object's mass is inherently positive, and gravitational interaction between objects is always attractive, resulting in negative gravitational energy. Under any circumstances, it remains impossible for the object's mass to become negative or for gravitational interaction between objects to become repulsive.

(reason) The gravitational force and gravitational mass arise from the continuity symmetry of space and time. There is only one possible polarity for the breaking of this symmetry, as space and time cannot be broken differently. The alternative polarity holds no physical meaning.

 

(negative mass & acceleration of the Universe's expansion) Since only a negative mass can make the gravitational force repulsive, does the acceleration of the Universe's expansion provide clear evidence for the existence of negative mass?

No, gravitation always remains attractive, and negative mass does not exist. An indirect effect of the attractive gravitation results in the acceleration of the Universe's expansion.

This effect resembles the Archimedes' or buoyant force, which lifts a ship above water, counteracting Earth's gravitational pull. While gravitational force attracts all objects towards Earth, the buoyant force pushes the ship upward, appearing as if gravity becomes repulsive. However, Archimedes' principle provides a simpler explanation solely based on the attractive gravitational force, without altering its nature.

In reality, the ship experiences two gravitational forces, and a balance exists between them: the gravitational force acting on the ship and the gravitational force acting on the displaced water due to the ship's volume. Both forces act toward Earth. The reason the ship is pushed in the opposite direction of Earth's gravitational force is simply that the mass of the displaced water is larger than the mass of the ship, resulting in a greater gravitational force from the displaced water.

 

 

 

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Two issues to resolve to understand Dark Energy:

(issue 1): How does the vacuum (emptiness) have a non- zero mass?

(issue 2): How does attractive gravitational force become repulsive, cursing accelerating expansion of the Universe?

 

(issue 1 explained ): Reason why the vacuum (emptiness) have a non- zero mass.

The physical mechanism for the non-zero mass of vacuum originates from the existence of higher-energy states within the vacuum, corresponding to the breaking of symmetries and the creation of particle-antiparticle pairs, such as an electron and a positron.

Even in the absence of any external force or energy supply, the vacuum takes those higher energy states, creating particle-antiparticle pairs. This phenomenon is known as the spontaneous breaking of symmetries. Although particles created through this process have a very short life time and swiftly revert back to the vacuum state, their collective mass contributes to the overall mass of the vacuum.

 

Examples of spontaneous breaking of symmetries of the vacuum contributing to mass of vacuum (Dark Energy)
Spontaneous breaking of vacuum into electron- positron pair Spontaneous breaking of vacuum into a pair of particle and antiparticle of Dark Matter     After breaking the vacuum into an electron and positron, the attractive Coulomb force (shown as green lines) between the electron and positron pulls them together back into the vacuum state. After breaking the vacuum into a particle (shown as crimson- color ball) )and antiparticle (shown as blue ball) of Dark Matter, the attractive gravitational force (shown as red lines) between the particle and antiparticle pulls them together back into the vacuum state.   Both masses of the short- lived electron and positron contribute to the mass of vacuum (Dark Energy) Both masses of the short- lived particle and antiparticle of Dark Matter contribute to the mass of vacuum (Dark Energy)
click on image to enlarge it

 

(Particle content of Dark Energy) Which particles contribute to Dark Energy?

All types of particles contribute to Dark Energy because any set of particles/antiparticles can be created by the spontaneous breaking of symmetries of the vacuum (e.g. an electron- positron pair). However, the largest contribution to Dark Energy comes from the particles/antiparticles of Dark Matter. This is because the attractive force between particles and antiparticles of Dark Matter is the smallest among any other particles (broken symmetries).

 

(fact): The spontaneous breaking of the vacuum into particles/antiparticles of Dark Matter, which mostly contributes to Dark Energy and is the most frequent event among all possible events of spontaneous breaking of symmetries of the vacuum, is exactly the same as the trigger event of Cosmic Inflation. (see below)

(particles/antiparticles of Dark Matter: Dark Energy vs. Cosmic Inflation) If events similar to those that triggered Cosmic Inflation occur frequently in many places in the Universe, why do these events not trigger a new Cosmic Inflation and create a new Universe??

To trigger Cosmic Inflation, the particles/antiparticles of Dark Matter should be of extremely small size. The event of spontaneous breaking of the vacuum into particles/antiparticles of the required small size is extremely rare and may occur only once per trillion years. In contrast, the event of spontaneous breaking of the vacuum into particles/antiparticles of Dark Matter, which occurs frequently in many places in the Universe and contributes to Dark Energy, involves substantially larger particles and cannot trigger Cosmic Inflation.

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(issue 2 explained ): Reason how gravitational force becomes repulsive.

The gravitational force is inherently attractive and it cannot be repulsive between two elementary particles under any circumstances. However, the gravitational force can exhibit a repulsive behavior when the masses of interacting objects change in relation to the distance between them. The repulsive effect of the gravitational force between the particles of Dark Energy and the Matter in the Universe is attributed to this phenomenon.

(fact): The mechanical force between two objects is defined as the change in interaction energy between the objects with respect to the change in distance between them. This force is directed in the direction where the interaction energy is reduced.

Gravitation energy:

(fact): Gravitational energy is always negative and the gravitational force between two objects, whose masses do not change due to the gravitational interaction, is always attractive.

(fact ): (direction of gravitational force) Two objects are attracted to each other, when the interaction energy between them increases when the distance R between them increases. In contrast, two objects are repulsed by each other, when the interaction energy between them decreases with R.

conventional attractive contribution to gravitational energy:

The gravitational energy is reversed proportional to the distance R between objects. It reduces absolute value of the negative gravitational energy with R and making the conventional attractive contribution to gravitational energy

unconventional repulsive contribution of gravitational energy:

When the masses of interacting objects increase with an increase in the distance R between them, it leads to an unconventional repulsive contribution of gravitational energy.

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Attractive and repulsive gravitational force

What is the force:

See more details below

A mechanical force between two objects is defined as the ratio of the change in interaction energy between the objects to the change in distance between them.

conventional attractive gravitational force:

conventional attractive gravitational force:

The attractive gravitational force exists between all existing objects in our Universe. The mere existence of any object inevitably generates this attractive gravitational force. It is an unchangeable and unavoidable feature of our space-time.

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unconventional repulsive gravitational force:

unconventional repulsive gravitational force:

The repulsive gravitational force is very rare and only exists when the masses of interacting objects increase with an increase in the distance R between them.

(fact): There is no alternative method to make gravitational force repulsive other than modulating the masses of the interacting objects.

 

Casses when repulsive gravitational force exists:

(case 1): The repulsive gravitational force can manifest itself when an object moves within another object of a spherical shape, such as gas, whose density decreases with distance from its center.

(case 2): Between particles of visible and dark matter, and particles created by the spontaneous breaking of the vacuum (particles of dark energy).

 

Are you suggesting that if mass were somehow added to the Earth, the gravitational force of the Earth would become repulsive, causing all people on Earth to be thrown into space?

No, if mass were somehow added to the Earth, the gravitational force of the Earth would not become repulsive; instead, the attractive gravitational force would become even stronger, ensuring everyone's safety on Earth.

However, consider this scenario: if a sensor were fixed on an object and connected to a mass pump, so that additional mass is pumped to Earth when the object moves up away from Earth, and mass is removed from Earth when the object moves down towards Earth, only then would the object be thrown away from Earth due to the repulsive gravitational force.

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Condition when total gravitation force becomes repulsive:

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History of exploring the origin of dark energy.

(history) Understanding that vacuum possesses mass, gravitation, and energy dates back a long time. For instance, Landau dedicated an entire volume of his Course of Physics to this phenomenon.

(long- lived problem) The primary challenge arises from the fact that all current theoretical estimates, rooted in the Standard Model, yield values for Dark Energy that significantly exceed the measured Dark eEnergy

 

 

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Particle & Antiparticle vs. Breaking/Unbreaking Symmetry

 

 

A pair of particles/ antiparticles, a triplet of particles/ antiparticles, a quartet of particles/ antiparticles etc.

 

 

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Virtual particles: Magical savior particles for Standard model

which still failed to save it

The Standard Model seeks to comprehend everything in Nature solely through particles. However, the fundamental components of Nature are symmetries, with particles being significant but representing just a subset of Nature's potential states.

When certain effects elude explanation through particles alone, 'magic' is invoked. Of course, in the Standard Model, this 'magic' assumes the form of particles, termed virtual particles. The primary magical property of virtual particles is their allowance to break any existing laws of Physics.

In the Post-Standard Model, short-lived particles can arise from the spontaneous breaking of symmetry. Unlike virtual particles, these particles are entirely real and abide by all laws of Physics.

 

 

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Re- normalization: a trick to save Standard model

 

 

 

 

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Spontaneous breaking of the symmetry or symmetries.

Spontaneous breaking of a symmetry or simultaneously several symmetries is an important feature of any object within our Universe. Even the emptiness or the vacuum state has such a feature. It is the major effect which governs dark energy, cosmic inflation, interaction of spins etc.

The essence of this effect lies in the existence of excited states alongside the ground state of any quantum object. These excited states represent the manifestation of certain broken symmetries within the object. Despite the object primarily residing in its ground state, it invariably transitions to the excited state for brief intervals. There exists no scenario or possibility where the object remains indefinitely in the ground state. The mere presence of the excited state ensures an inevitable movement towards it. Although the object might persist in the ground state for an extended period and only briefly occupy the excited state, this occurrence is unavoidable due to the very existence of the excited state.

 

 

Examples of spontaneous breaking of the symmetry:

(example 1): Interaction of a non-magnetic particle with a magnetic field

(example 2):Dark energy

(example 3): Cosmic Inflation

(example 4): Seed of Cosmic Inflation

 

Since the electron goes from a low-energy ground state to a higher- energy excited state during spontaneous breaking of the symmetry Does the state of spontaneous symmetry breaking borrow its energy from a vacuum?

No, the state of spontaneous breaking of the symmetry exists inside of the quantum state itself. Having a higher energy- state and spending a short time on it is an intrinsic feature for any quantum state.

 

 

Spontaneous breaking of the time- inverse symmetry (spontaneous spin)
Two electrons, each possessing opposite spins, predominantly occupy the ground state with energy E0 for the majority of the time. In this state, time-inverse symmetry remains unbroken, and the system does not have a defined spin. However, momentarily, the time-inverse symmetry is broken, causing one electron to temporarily transition to a higher energy level, E1. During this period, each electron assumes a distinct spin direction. With each instance of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the spin direction varies. As the energy gap between the ground and excited energy levels widens, the duration that electrons spend in the ground state increases, while the time spent in the excited state—where the time-inverse symmetry is spontaneously broken—shortens.
ground state of non- broken time- inverse symmetry State of spontaneously- broken symmetry. possibility 1 State of spontaneously- broken symmetry. possibility 2 At this state, the electron stays the most of the time. The time- inverse symmetry is not broken for this state. Even though the level E0 is occupied by two electrons of opposite spin, in fact, the two electrons combine into one particle with no spin and charge -2e. At this state, the electron stays a short time. The time- inverse symmetry is broken for this state. Even though the total spin of the system remains zero, locally the spin is not zero. It is because the states of energies E1 and E0 are two different quantum states possessing different parameters. E.g,. the spatial distribution for each state might be different. Only when the time- inverse symmetry is broken, the spin direction becomes specific and well defined. The spins can be directed in any direction either up and down or left and right and so on. The spins of the two electrons are always opposite.
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The true reality of spontaneous breaking of symmetry

The spontaneous breaking of symmetry isn't a virtual or average event; it's as genuine as can be. It happens randomly within a very specific time frame.

This breaking of symmetry can be perceived by a measurement device as a temporary occurrence or as the emergence of a property within the object that doesn't persist in its stable, long-term ground state.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Force- enhanced spontaneous breaking of the symmetry

An external field can either enhance or suppress the probability of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Moreover, such a field can induce properties in an object that it doesn't possess in its natural state without the field. For instance, a non-magnetic particle can acquire magnetic properties in the presence of a magnetic field.

 

Preferential spontaneous breaking of the symmetry under an external force
Time spending on ground state E0 and excited state E1 under increasing magnetic field Time spending on excited state E1 vs angle between excited spin and magnetic field When an external magnetic field is applied, the energy for excited level E1 is different whether the excited spin is along or opposite to the magnetic field. Consequently, both the probability of spontaneous symmetry breaking and the duration spent in the excited level are influenced by the spin of the excited electron. The likelihood and duration increase when the spin is aligned with the magnetic field. As the external magnetic field strength increases, the duration for which the electron remains in the excited level increases, while its time spent in the ground level decreases. In the absence of a magnetic field, the probability of the spontaneously broken state is equal for any spin direction. However, under an external magnetic field, the probability of symmetry breaking is higher when the spin aligns with the magnetic field compared to when it opposes the magnetic field.
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Reversible and non- reversible spontaneous breaking of the symmetry.

 

Importance of energy conservation for non- reversible spontaneous breaking of the symmetry:

As energy and time are complementary parameters within a single symmetry (The time transfer symmetry. See above), the non-conservation of energy during spontaneous symmetry breaking implies that the object remains in the breaking state for only a finite duration. For instance, the Cosmic Inflation represents an irreversible breaking of symmetries that conserves energy.

 

Reversible and non- reversible spontaneous breaking of the symmetry
reversible spontaneos breaking non- reversible spontaneous breaking After breaking the vacuum into an electron and positron, the attractive Coulomb force (shown as green lines) between the electron and positron pulls them together back into the vacuum state. As a result, the broken vacuum state is transformed back to the normal vacuum state. After breaking the time- inverse symmetry of a charged particle into two particles with opposite spins, there is a repulsive Coulomb ( shown as red lines) force between two minus- charged particles, which pushes the electrons away from each other. The case, when there is an attractive force between two broken parts of one symmetry, is the standard case for any force or any symmetry (see forces nature below)
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Interaction of the magnetic field with a non-magnetic particle

Zayets 2023.11

 

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Kinetic energy as acquired by spontaneous symmetry breaking

 

Kinetic energy corresponds to and describes the continuity symmetry of space. Like any symmetry, it can undergo spontaneous breaking.

 

As a consequence of spontaneous breaking the continuity symmetry of space , a stationary particle momentarily acquires kinetic energy, initiating movement. After a brief interval, the particle returns to its stationary state.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Telegraphic noise for position of a particle

Zayets 2023.12

The specific position of a stationary particle isn't constant; rather, it slightly and randomly fluctuates around a single point. This phenomenon is termed 'Telegraphic noise' regarding the particle's position. It represents a universal and intrinsic property of particles within our Universe, stemming from the unavoidable effects of spontaneous symmetry breaking.

The movement state of a particle represents a higher energy state compared to its stationary state. This higher energy of a moving particle is attributed solely to the particle's kinetic energy. Consequently, through the spontaneous breaking of symmetry, the particle temporarily attains a heightened kinetic energy state. Subsequently, after a short time the particle reverts to its stationary state in absence of kinetic energy.

The spatial-position-transfer symmetry, described by energy, is among the potential energies susceptible to spontaneous breaking. For instance, a particle can spontaneously acquire kinetic energy similar to how it can spontaneously acquire magnetic energy.

A particle initially at rest can suddenly acquire kinetic energy, initiating movement in a random direction. After a brief period, the particle returns to its stationary state, but its position has already changed. Thus, the result of spontaneous symmetry breaking is the random alteration of the particle's position. When there's no directional preference, this spontaneous change in spatial position occurs around the particle's initial location.

 

 

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Non- reversible breaking of the symmetry in an external field

Following the spontaneous breaking of a symmetry, the particle acquires new properties that can interact with external objects and fields. This interaction has the potential to counteract the persistent and inherent attractive force that usually pulls the broken symmetry parts (newly- created particles) back together. This counteracting effect makes the spontaneous symmetry breaking irreversible, rendering it as a permanent state.

 

Reversible and non- reversible breaking of the symmetry in external electrical field
reversible spontaneos breaking. non- reversible spontaneous breaking in electrical field After breaking the vacuum into an electron and positron, the attractive Coulomb force (shown as green lines) between the electron and positron pulls them together back into the vacuum state.As a result, the broken vacuum state is transformed back to the normal vacuum state. Creation of an electron and a positron from vacuum within an electric field. Once acquiring opposite charges, the electron and positron experience a repulsive force in the external electrical field, pushing them in opposite directions. This external electrical force counteracts the attractive force pulling the electron and positron back together. Consequently, they move away from each other, making the spontaneous symmetry breaking permanent and irreversible.
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Cosmic Inflation

The Cosmic Inflation, an event preceding the Big Bang, describes a self-sustained breaking of the Universe's symmetry. All matter in the Universe emerged during the Cosmic Inflation. Prior to Inflation, the Universe was entirely symmetrical and devoid of any matter. In the Post-Inflation era, the interaction and transformation of all matter created during Cosmic Inflation shape our present Universe into its present form in an event known as the Big Bang.

 

Cosmic inflation + Big Bang
Creation Story of all Matter in the Universe.
(Inflation Seed): The Inflation Seed refers to the reversible spontaneous breaking of space symmetry (see above), resulting in the creation of a pair of minute particles whose gravitational fields triggered cosmic inflation. It existed only for a very brief period due to its reversible nature. The inflation seed shares similarities with the reversible spontaneous breaking that gives rise to dark energy (see above). (Cosmic Inflation): The Cosmic Inflation describes the irreversible and self-sustaining spontaneous breaking of space symmetry, leading to the creation of all matter in our Universe. It occurs within the region of a high gravitational field gradient at the expanding sphere's edge, where matter is continuously created from vacuum. (Big Bang): The Big Bang describes the interaction and transformation of matter created by Cosmic Inflation, culminating in the formation of the Universe as we perceive and inhabit it today, complete with its galaxies, stars, and planets.   Cosmic Inflation: Simple explaination from my younger daughter Sophia The video explains the mechanism on how all matter was created from the vacuum during the Cosmic inflation. click on image to see it on YouTube
Expansion of 2D circle is used instead of Expansion of 3D sphere.
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Nothing = Vacuum

full symmetry of everything

Prior to the Cosmic Inflation, the Universe was entirely symmetrical and devoid of any matter.

Inflation Seed

reversible breaking of symmetries; short-time lived event

The Inflation Seed is an event, which triggered the Cosmic Inflation. The Inflation Seed is an event of reversible breaking of symmetries, which existed for a very short time.

The Inflation Seed was not triggered by an external event, but is an intrinsic and unavoidable property of vacuum.

 

 

 

 

Cosmic Inflation

irreversible self- sustaining breaking of symmetries; long-time lived event

The Cosmic Inflation, an event preceding the Big Bang and was triggered by the Inflation Seed, describes a self-sustained breaking of the Universe's symmetry. All matter in the Universe was created during the Cosmic Inflation.

The Cosmic Inflation is irreversible self- sustaining breaking of symmetries of vacuum and the continuous process of creation of pairs of matter and antimatter particles in process.

Creation mechanism of matter from vacuum in short:

A pair of particles and their corresponding antiparticle is created from the vacuum due to the spontaneous symmetry breaking. The attractive force between them is counteracted by a sharp gradient in the gravitational force, originating from a cloud of particles formed during previous inflation events. As a result, the collapse of the particle and antiparticle back into the vacuum is prevented, thus leading to the creation of permanently- existed matter from the vacuum.

Verified experimental fact: Energy conservation during Cosmic inflation.

Every event of matter creation from vacuum strictly adheres to energy conservation. This condition is pivotal in maintaining cosmic inflation as a self-sustaining event.

Following each matter creation event, the total positive energy—comprising the sum of all mc² and kinetic energies for every newly created particle—is precisely balanced by an equal negative energy. This negative energy comprises the sum of gravitational energy and other attractive forces, like Coulomb attraction, between the created particles themselves, as well as between these particles and the pre-existing ones.

 

 

Why are particle/antiparticle pairs of Dark Matter the first particles created during the Inflation?

It's because the unavoidable attractive force between the particle and the antiparticle is weakest for Dark Matter particles among all known particles with rest mass.

 

Despite the gravitational force being the weakest among all forces, why is a sharp gradient in gravitational force necessary to suppress the attraction between particles and antiparticles, consequently maintaining continuous Inflation? Could a stronger force, such as the electrical force, potentially serve this purpose?

 

Given there are practically no attractive forces between two photons, why, then, could the photon be among the first particles created during the Inflation?

It is because the photon does not have a rest mass.

An antiparticle for a photon is essentially a similar photon, but with a phase shifted by 180 degrees. When these two photons combine, their sum results in "the nothingness" or a vacuum state.

Spontaneous symmetry breaking can generate a pair consisting of a photon and its antiparticle. However, there's no external force that could prevent their reversion back to the vacuum state.

 

Big Bang

creation of planets, stars, galaxies, microwave background

aa

The Big Bang event shaped the Universe into the present form.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Why should one care about a cosmic event like the Inflation in order to understand the spin? Why is understanding of the Inflation important for understanding of the spin?

The spin describes the broken-time inverse symmetry. The Inflation is a big event of the breaking of all possible symmetries of the Universe. Some properties of the spin can be evaluated from general properties of the broken symmetry, which are magnified during the Inflation and, therefore, can be easily understood.

 

There are several such examples:

(example 1: Spin conservation law)

In the case when the symmetry of the vacuum (the Emptiness) is broken (something is created from nothing), the total sum of the created quantities should be zero:

particle + antiparticle =0;

negative charge (-e electron) + positive charge (+e positron) = 0;

negative energy (gravitational energy) + negative energy (kinetic energy) =0;

spin-up + spin-down =0;

 

 

(example 2: spin-active and spin-inactive states)

If a symmetry can be broken, it can be unbroken.

(broken/unbroken symmetry of the charge:)

Annihilation of a negatively-charged electron and a positively-charged positron results in particles without any electrical charge. Therefore, two opposite charges (two opposite breaking of a symmetry), when interact, fully disappears

 

(broken/unbroken symmetry of spin:)

Each quantum electron state can be occupied either by none or one or two electrons of opposite spin. The time inverse symmetry is broken, when a quantum state is occupied by one electron. Such a state is spin active. The time inverse symmetry is not broken, when a quantum state is occupied by two electrons. Such a state is spin inactive.

 

As a symmetry can be broken and next unbroken. The spin and the spin properties can appear and disappear for an electron. For example, deep-energy electrons in an atom do not have any spin properties. The spin-inactive states are important for the "hole" transport (See here), important for the spin distribution (See here) and important for a spin transport (e.g. the Hall transport).

 

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The inflation - the mechanism of the creation of all matter in the Universe.

The inflation explains how all matter was created in our Universe.

 

The model of the inflation was introduced in70th-80th as the model of the launching mechanism of the Big Bang. At beginning, the accelerating expansion of the Universe at earliest time of our Universe was called the inflation.

Now there are several proofs that the sum of all energies of the Universe (the positive energy of all matter and the negative energy of gravitational attractions between all matter) equals to exact zero. It proves that all matter in Universe was created from vacuum (from nothing) during inflation time.

 

How the fact of inflation influences the Law of Physics?

1. It explains many facts, which were experimentally found before and which postulated the Quantum Mechanics and the Standard Model.

2. It slightly modifies all laws of Physics to comply to the important fact that all particles should be generated from vacuum and they be able to annihilate into vacuum.

 

The Facts of Physics, which are consequence of the Inflation origin of our Universe:

(1) All elementary particles in the Universe are waves. There are no point-like particles

proof: Any existed particle should be created from vacuum. The mechanism how to create a wave-like particle is clear (See Fig.10). There is no any known mechanism, which could create a point-like particle from vacuum.

(2) An elementary particle does not have a fixed size. The size of the elementary particle is determined by its environment

proof:Since any elementary particle is a wave, the size of the wave is the size of the wave package. The size of the elementary particle is determined by the process how the elementary particle is created from vacuum (See Fig. 4).

It is the basic principle, which is postulated by the Quantum Mechanics.

(3) All forces of the nature (except the gravitation force) are originated from the processes of creation of particles from the vacuum and processes of annihilation of particles into vacuum

proof:When two particles are relatively far from each other and their wave functions are not overlapped, only possible way of their interaction is by generating and annihilating of other particles. For example, the electrical interaction between two electrons is mediated by a photon.

(4) An elementary particle does not have parts. An elementary particle does not interact with itself.

proof:

(5) Elementary particles do not transform into each other abruptly. The process of transforming from particle to particle is continuous.

proof:Since any

(6) Any interaction between particles (except gravitational interaction) significantly changes when the distance between particles becomes smaller than their size. Any interaction between two particles are finite, even if distance between two particles approaches to zero.

proof:The classical physics states that any interaction between particles (gravitational or electromagnetic interaction) is infinite, when distance between two particles is zero. Since all particles are cracked from vacuum, initially before cracking two particles of opposite phase should be at exactly the same location (therefore, they form the vacuum). However, in the case if the interaction between these two particles (including gravitational interaction and the electromagnetic interaction) is infinite, the particle cold not ever be moved away from each other and any particle could not be created.

 

 

 

 

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fact 1: All elementary particles in the Universe are waves. There are no point-like particles

proof: Any existed particle should be created from vacuum. The mechanism how to create a wave-like particle is clear (See Fig.10). There is no any known mechanism, which could create a point-like particle from vacuum.

How to create a particle from vacuum?

The sum of two waves, which are exactly the same but have phase difference of 180 degrees, is the zero or nothing or vacuum (See Fig.10 left). When the waves stay at an exactly the same point, they form the vacuum or nothing. In this case two waves are not yet particle, but they are a "virtual possibility for creation of particles". If there is a force, which interacts differently with the wave of opposite phase, two waves move in different locations and from virtual they become real particles

. Two waves of opposite phase are very similar. How it is possible that they interact differently with the field?

For example, two particles of opposite phase may have different charge. Than, in an electrical field they move in opposite directions.

if in a electrical field, the particle are so easily created, why do not we observe the creation of a huge number of particles in an electrical field?

From a view of a classic physics, the attraction between two particles of opposite charge are infinite, when the particles are located at the same point. It requires an infinite electrical field in order to move the particles away from each other. The case of real quantum world is different. Still the process of the creation of a particle from a vacuum is very subtle process, which requires existence of additional one, two or more particles at the same location.

 

Cases of creation of particles from vacuum:

case 1. The electromagnetic interaction

in this case a charged particle breaks a photon from vacuum. The photon reaches the second charge particle and annihilate itself (it is converted back into vacuum) at the location of the second charged particle. As result, two charged particles repel or attract each other.

case 2. The strong interaction

in this case a quark breaks a gluon from vacuum. The gluon reaches the second quark and annihilate itself (it is converted back into vacuum) at its location. As result, two quarks attract each other.

case 3. The weak interaction

in this case three quarks (u-,d-,d-) breaks a W- boson from vacuum. Next, the W- boson breaks an electron, a neutrino and a quark from the vacuum. As result, a neutron (u-,d-,d-) beta- decays into a proton (u-,u-,d-), an electron and a neutrino.

case 4. The dark energy

It is the energy of the vacuum, which fills up all Universe. The dark energy is only a substance in the Universe, which was not created during the inflation. The origin of the dark energy is the short-leave particles, which are broken from the vacuum.

There is a very small, but a finite probability that particles are broken from the vacuum. However, if there is no other particle in their proximity, these two particles quickly annihilate back into vacuum. The gravitation of these short-live particles has a substantial influence on our Universe. Even though the probability of such particles from is very small and life time of these particles is very short, in cosmological scale their gravitation is strong and it causes the accelerating expansion of our Universe. It is because these short-lived particles are created at all points of space.

case 5. The inflation

It is a self-sustained process of constant breaking of particles from vacuum. During the inflation, the particles, which are just created, make the conditions for the breaking additional particles from vacuum. These particles make another particles and so on. During inflation the number of particles increases exponentially. All substance of our Universe, except the dark energy, were created during the Inflation.

The conditions to keep self-sustained breaking of vacuum is extremely subtle. The accelerating expansion of the Universe and an extremely high density of particles are the key conditions to keep self-sustained breaking of vacuum. Only about 100-200 consequence breaking of particles by new- created particles occurred during the Inflation. It was sufficient to create all matter in our Universe.

 

The conditions, at which particles can broken from vacuum, are very subtle. First of all, all Conservation Laws should be satisfied!!!

Q. The vacuum energy is zero. When two particles are broken from vacuum, each particle has the energy mc² . How the energy is conserved during this process?

A. The particles have a positive energy, which the sum of the kinetic energy and mc². The attraction energy between particles is negative energy. The energy of the gravitational attraction is always negative. If charge of particles is opposite, the energy of the Coulomb attraction is also negative. It is very important that during breaking the particles from vacuum the total energy is always zero. As it has been proved already the sum of all energies in our Universe exactly equals to zero. That means that during all existence of our Universe and after unimaginable number of breaking of particles from vacuum the Conservation of the energy has never been compromised.

Of course, in the case when another particle participating in breaking of particles from vacuum, its energy can be transferred into the energy of new particles.

 

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fact An elementary particle does not have a fixed size. The size of the elementary particle is determined by its environment

proof:Since any elementary particle is a wave, the size of the wave is the size of the wave package.

proof: An elementary particle is a wave package, which length is the distance between two consequence scatterings of the particle or the distance between two events of the interaction of the particle with other particles.

For example, the electrons is

(1) 1-10 μm in a high-crystal quality semiconductor.

(2) 10-100 nm in a metal

(3) 0.1 nm in an atom

Length of a photon

It is called the photon coherence length. It is important characteristic of any light source. Simply it could be understood as an average length of wave packages in an optical beam.

In my optical experiments I use light sources of different coherence length. I use Santec tunable laser at lambda=1550 nm. Its light has the coherence length longer than 1 meter. I have a tunable Ti:sapphire laser. When I bought it it has a very short coherence length less than one millimeter. I have installed additional option in order to increase the coherence length. Now the the coherence length of light from this laser is a few centimeters. The coherence length of light from a light bulb is about 0.1 millimeter.

 

Length of an electron

The electron is a wave. Its length is not fixed, but it is determined by the electron environment.

In a conductor, the the effective length of a conduction electron equals to its mean-free path λ_mean or a distance between two subsequent electron scatterings. It is between 10 nm and 1000 nm in a semiconductor and between 1 nm and 10 nm in a metal.

 

The size of a localized electron equals to the size of atom (~0.1 nm).

 

 

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The size of elementary particle and forces of the nature

Important point: The forces between particles depend on the size of particles

The classical physics and the standard model postulate that all forces between particles (the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the strong force and the weak force) depends on the distance between particles and some parameter of the particle (the mass, the electrical and color charge).

An elementary particle does not have parts, it attracts or repel other particle as a whole. There are no parts of the particle, which could interact with other particle individually.

The interaction between particles (except gravitational interaction) is always mediated by a creation and annihilation of another particle from the vacuum.

(1) electromagnetic interaction is mediated by

 

 

 

 

 

 

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How two elemental particles (two electrons) are transformed into one elementary particle?

Origin of exchange interaction. Spin-inactive electrons.

(about spin-inactive electrons)

Two electrons of an opposite spin, which occupy one quantum state, are one particle or two particles?

A. It is one particle. At least, its properties are closer to that of one elementary particle than to that of two elementary particles. Two electrons do not repel each other, do not interact with each other and cannot be distinguished as two separated subjects (wave function symmetry, orbital moment etc.) . Such a state fully loses all single- electron property. For example, Two electrons of opposite spin, which occupy one quantum state, do not have any exchange interaction with any other electrons.

(virtual electrons) Such a state can be considered as a sum of two separate subjects only virtually. When such a state interacts with a photon or other external particle only one of two electrons is transformed to another energy level or to another quantum state. The spin direction of the transformed electrons is either random or is defined by the external particle. The spin of the remaining electron is opposite to the spin of the transformed electron. Only from this virtual point of view, this state can be considered as two electrons.

(fact) Two electrons of an opposite spin, which occupy one quantum state, should be considered as one elemental particle. These electrons lose their spin properties and are called the spin-inactive electrons.

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How is it possible that two elementary particles are transformed into one elementary particle and vice versa?

A. Since all known elementary particles are waves, it is very common that during an interaction between them, the number of particles changes. For example, the result of interaction of an electron and a positron is only a photon.

All matter in the universe was created literally from nothing 13.8 billion years ago during the inflation period.

Creation or annihilation of particles waves is very common process. How two particles (waves) can be created from nothing could be understood as follows: When there are two absolutely identical waves, but phase shifted 180 degrees relatively each other, their sum gives zero or nothing. Therefore, two particles (for example, an electron and a positron) can combine that result will be nothing. Similarly, if some force changes the phase shift between particles from 180 degrees to any other, from nothing two particles can be created.

 

Mathematically the process when two electrons of opposite spins combine and create one elementary particle without spin ("full" state) can be understood as follows.

Two electrons with opposite spins, which occupy different states, are described by two spinors

They are described by different sets of coordinates (x1,y1,z1) and (x2,y2,z2). It means they are two elementary particles, which interact with other.

When these two electrons of opposite spins occupy one state, they are described by a scalar wave function, which is product of spinors (1.1) and (1.2)

It is important that the scalar wave function (1.3) is described by one set of coordinate. It means (1.3) describes one elementary particle.

More about spin basic properties see here

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(about exchange interaction)

How is it possible that two elementary particles are transformed into one elementary particle and vice versa?

A. Continuous. When the distance between two electrons of an opposite spin decreases, the Coulomb repelling force between them decreases and becomes zero when they occupy exactly one spot. It looks like two electrons continuously transformed into one particle as the distance between electrons decreases. In Quantum Mechanics, this process is described by using a symmetrical and asymmetrical wavefunction (See here for details).

Such a reduction of the Coulomb repulsion only occurs only when the spins of two electrons are opposite. Otherwise, the Coulomb repulsion regains its full strength. As a result, the Coulomb repulsion between two electrons is spin- dependent. The spin- dependency of the Coulomb interaction is called the exchange interaction. It is a very interesting and complex effect. (For details see here)

 

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Can humans destroy the Earth, the Milky Way Galaxy, our Universe and any possible Alien Civilization living there?

 

Yes, they can. It would be the case when the human will create conditions similar to those at the start of the Cosmic Inflation by using a high-energy particle accelerator.

 

(important fact) We know for sure that all material in our University was created during an event called the Cosmic Inflation. Key features of the Cosmic Inflation are a high energy of particles and a short size of particles. As a consequence, each existing particle was able to break a vacuum state into a particle and antiparticle. This chain event created all matter of the Universe. Even though the conditions, which triggered the Cosmic Inflation, are tough and extreme, it is possible to recreate them by humans using a high- energy particle accelerator. If a new Cosmic Inflation were triggered, the Earth, the Milky Way Galaxy, our Universe and any possible Alien Civilization living there would be destroyed.

(fact): There is only a little scientific reason for further increase of the energy of the colliding particles in the particle accelerators. We already know well the Physics of colliding particles. It is nothing to be found from colliding particles of ever higher energy!

(fact): There are millions of happy bureaucrats, who are feeding on the money milked from the government to build the extremely- expensive particle accelerator. They will fight vigorously to continue the money flow in order to built higher- energy and even-more- dangerous particle accelerators.

 

 

 

 

 

 

At present, there are many violent events in the Universe, in which particles are accelerated to a very high energies, for example, at the horizon of a super- massive black hole (the Quasar) etc.. Why do not these events trigger a new Cosmic Inflation?

The energy of the colliding particles, which is already achieved in the modern particle accelerators, substantially exceeded the maximum-possible particle energies in these violent events.

How do we know at which energy the New Cosmic Inflation can be triggered??

A very rough estimation is the energy, at which the particle size would be close to the Planck length. When the particle size is about the Planck length, the gravitational field of the particle is able to split the vacuum state into an electron and a positron. The energy used in the modern accelerators is still far from that energy.

However, the true energy, which could start a new Cosmic Inflation, might be much lower. Its exact value can be estimated from features of the Dark energy (See above). At present, it is not easy to do. Until this dangerous energy, at which a new Cosmic Inflation could be started, will be reliably estimated, the energy of new particle accelerators should be limited!

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Video

 

(video 1). Inflation: The Creation Story of all Matter in the Universe. (YouTube video)

 

Inflation: The Creation Story of all Matter in the Universe.
from my younger daughter Sophia
The video explains the mechanism on how all matter was created from the vacuum during the Cosmic inflation.
click on image to see it on YouTube

 

 

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Black hole

A Black Hole is a massive object, from which any particle, including photons, cannot escape. To escape a Black Hole, a particle would need to travel at a speed exceeding the speed of light, which is impossible. Only the gravitational field can escape a Black Hole because it is not a particle or object but a distortion of space-time.

 

Non- existent singularity at the center of the black hole:

Oversimplified description of the Black Hole leads to a singularity, at which several parameters of the space- time, including mass, take an infinite value.

 

The Particle size at the center of the black hole.

Why does not a super massive black hole trigger a new cosmic inflation?

 

Black hole: Which symmetry remains unbroken at the center of the black hole?

What kind of material remains at the center of the black hole?

 

 

 

 

 

 

Complex structure of broken symmetry of the quark- quantum- field.

The broken symmetry of the quark- quantum field symmetry or the symmetry of the strong field is strongest against unbreaking by the huge gravitational field inside the black hole.

The quark- quantum field symmetry is the last stand against unbreaking unbreaking of the material back into the vacuum state.

Steady reduction of mass of a Black Hole.

During the material annihilation at the center of a Black Hole, the positive energy that disappears due to the vanishing material mass precisely matches the reduction in negative energy of the diminished gravitational field. Consequently, the total energy of the Black Hole remains constant throughout the process of material annihilation.

Spontaneous unbreaking of the quark quantum field symmetry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Essence of a force in our Universe. What is the force in our Universe?

 

The force is the effect, which pushes an object from a state of a higher energy to a state of a lower energy.

Force in space, when the object energy varies with a spatial coordinate:

In the case when at a neighboring point the object energy is smaller than at the current point, the object moves to the neighboring point and it is defined that there is a force between the current and neighboring spatial points.

Force along other object parameters (other than the spatial coordinates):

Spin, time etc.

 

Does the object always move from a higher energy state to a lower energy state? Is it possible for the object to stay infinitely at the higher energy state in the presence of the lower energy state?

A.

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Questions & Answers

Is it possible for an object to have a negative mass? Is it possible for two objects to repel each other due to the gravitational field?

A.No. The gravitational field emerges as a result of the distortion in the homogeneity of space-time caused by an object's mass or, equivalently, its energy. Every object inherently possesses energy because its existence disrupts the time transfer symmetry, allowing for its differentiation and distinguishing between different moments in time. This breaking of time transfer symmetry generates a non-zero mass for the object, thus creating a gravitational field surrounding it.

Hence, the existence of a gravitational field correlates with the symmetry of time, and the polarity of this gravitational field directly aligns with the flow direction of time. The proposition of negative mass and a repelling-type gravitational field essentially assumes the possibility of time flowing in the opposite direction, which fundamentally contradicts the established principles of physics.

 

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